Trainer Talk

Why is my dog doing that????
Here is a guide to the behavioral terminology referred to as the science of behavior. These principals of learning apply to humans and animals alike. As you read and become more familiar with these terms and their meanings, you will see how you already have been applying these principles and laws that govern behavior, during your everyday life with your dog. You can then consider yourself a student of learning theory and begin to apply them with purpose. You will begin to change your dog's behavior in order to increase or decrease the frequency of both desirable and undesirable behaviors. You will gain confidence and skill and enjoy your dog's company even more !

Approximation
One small step, in a series of progressive steps that lead to the behavioral goal.

Aversive Stimulus
A stimulus whose termination or removal causes an increase in the frequency of behavior.

Avoidance Behavior
A behavior that increases in frequency because it postpones the delivery of an aversive stimulus (and is therefore negatively reinforced).

Backchaining
Training the last behavior in a chain first, then training the nextlast behavior, then the behavior before that, and so on. Back
chaining takes advantage of the Premack principle.

Balanced training
A type of training using all five principles of operant conditioning and an event marker (clicker) to modify behavior. This type of training is better known as "combined training." Balanced training implies equal amounts of reinforcement and punishment. However, the fallout associated with punishment makes such a "balance" a poor training choice.

Balance of Reinforcement
The relationship between the reinforcing value of an action, whether positive or negative, with the percentage of positive vs. negative reinforcement given following a specific act. For example, the balance of reinforcement would positive if the behavior is followed by a positive consequence a high percentage of the time. Behavior
Anything an animal does.

Behavioral Criterion
The level or behavioral response that must be met to earn reinforcement.

Behavioral Drift
Situation in which a previously trained behavior changes slightly over time, often due to slight inconsistencies in the trainers' cues, criteria, and reinforcement schedules. Binary Feedback A continuous stream of responses to a behavior indicating that the dog has done something correctly or incorrectly

Bridging Stimulus
A stimulus that can act as both an SD and a secondary reinforcer. It pinpoints the exact moment of reinforcement in a desired behavior. The "bridge" (often a clicker, whistle or word) communicates to the subject that it has performed correctly and signals that reinforcement is forthcoming. It "bridges" the gap between the time the correct response is given and the time the reinforcer is delivered.

Capture (Scan)
To place a naturally occurring behavior (or Unconditioned Response) under stimulus control by reinforcing the behavior as it occurs.

Chain Behavior
An individual response linking two or more individual behaviors in a specific order, elicited by a common discriminative stimulus (SD), or other stimulus. Each response acts as a conditioned reinforcer for the previous response and also provides the stimulus for the next behavior in the chain. The behavior is typically bridged at the end of the chain; the bridge serves as a conditioned reinforcer for the entire chain.

Clicker
A toy noisemaker. Animal trainers make use of the clicker as an event marker to mark a desired response. The sound of the clicker is an excellent marker because it is unique, quick, and consistent. You can find several different types of clickers in our store.

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning)
A basic form of learning in which stimuli initially incapable of evoking a reflex response acquire the ability to do so through repeated pairing with other stimuli that are able to elicit that response; a method of behavior modifi where the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (US) causes an unconditioned response (UR), which is emitted reflexively. This type of conditioning does not involve any voluntary choices by the animal; the response or reaction is reflexive. Combined training
A type of training using all five principles of operant conditioning and a marker signal (clicker) to modify behavior.

Compulsion training
The traditional style of dog training, where the dog is modeled or otherwise compelled to perform the behavior and physically corrected for noncompliance.

Conditioned Response (CR)
A type of learned response that occurs following the presentation of a specific stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
A signal that will elicit a specific response as a result of a learned association between that stimulus and that response.

Conditioning
A form of learning in which a change in behavior is due to changes or influences in the environment; the operation of associating an act or object with a stimulus to modify or mold behaviors. Consequence The result of an action. Consequences frequently but not always affect future behavior, making the behavior more or less likely to occur. The five principles of operant conditioning describe the potential results.

Counter conditioning
Pairing one stimulus that evokes one response with another that evokes an opposite response, so that the first stimulus comes to evoke the second response. For example, a dog is afraid of men wearing hats. When a man wearing a hat approaches, the dog is repeatedly fed his favorite food. The goal is to replace the animal's apprehension with the pleasure elicited by the food. Counter conditioning must be done gradually, however; if the process is rushed, the favorite food may take on the fear association instead.

Continuous Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which each correct response is followed by a positive reinforcer. Clickers are used to mark this event.

Correction
A euphemism for the application of a physical aversive. The aversive is intended to communicate that the dog did something wrong. In some cases the trainer then guides the dog through the desired behavior. The application of an aversive followed by desired behavior is considered instructive, thus the euphemism "correction."

Criteria The specific, trainer
defined characteristics of a desired response in a training session. The trainer clicks at the instant the animal achieves each criterion. Criteria can include not only the physical behavior but elements like latency, duration, and distance

Crossover dog
A dog that has previously been trained by a non
clicker method who is now being clicker trained.

Crossover trainer
A trainer who previously used non
clicker methods to train animals who is now clicker training.

Cue
A stimulus that elicits a behavior. Cues may be verbal, physical (i.e., a hand signal), or environmental (i.e., a curb may become a cue to sit if the dog is always cued to sit before crossing a road).

Desensitization
The lessening or disappearance of a (often negative) response through the pairing of a positive reinforcer with the negative stimulus or event; the process of turning an unfamiliar object or even (usually negative) toward a neutral position. The object or event can then be paired with positive reinforcers to make it positive

Differential Reinforcement (Selective Reinforcement)
The act of selectively reinforcing desirable responses to shape the topography of a specific behavior.

Differential Reinforcement of an Incompatible Behavior (DRI)
Schedule of reinforcement used to cause a decrease in the frequency of an undesirable behavior, in which the subject is reinforced for performing a behavior that competes, or is incompatible with, the undesirable behavior.

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO)
Schedule of reinforcement used to cause a decrease in the frequency of an undesirable behavior, in which the subject is reinforced for emitting any response other than the undesirable behavior.

Discrimination
The ability, acquired through learning, to make distinctions between stimuli that are similar but not exactly alike.

Discriminative Stimulus (SD, Cue, Signal)
A stimulus that precedes a behavior, signaling that a specific response will be reinforced if emitted correctly. The result is that the stimulus will consistently elicit that particular response.

Environmental reinforcer
Anything in the environment that your dog wants. Trainers can use access to these things as powerful reinforcers for desired behavior. For example, say your dog wants to greet an approaching dog. You can ask for a behavior and then let your dog's compliance (or non
compliance) determine whether he gets to meet and greet.

Event marker
A signal used to mark desired behavior at the instant it occurs. The clicker is an event marker.

Extinction The weakening of behavior through non
reinforcement or "ignoring" the behavior. In extinction, nothing is added or removed from the environment. For example, a treat lies on the other side of a fence. A dog reaches his paw under, but cannot reach the treat. Because reaching for the treat doesn't work because it isn't reinforced through success the dog will eventually quit reaching for the treat

Extinction Burst
The increase in a response that is brought on by the withdrawal of reinforcement. Extinction burst occurs just prior to the decline of behavior (due to lack of reinforcement) prior to extinction.

Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement follows the first correct response after a set amount of time has elapsed since previous reinforcement. For example, if an animal is reinforced every 5 seconds (assuming the last response is correct), this is expressed as FI=5 seconds.

Fixed Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement follows the correct response after a set number of responses. For example, if every second response is reinforced, FR=2.

Generalization
The lack of discrimination between two stimuli. An animal that has been conditioned to respond to a specific stimulus may offer the same response in the presence of a similar stimulus. Four quadrants of operant conditioning
An incorrect reference to the commonly seen chart illustrating the concepts of reinforcement and punishment. This description is misleading in two ways. It neglects to mention extinction, and it implies that all the principles of operant conditioning are of equal value in a training program.

Incompatible Behavior
A behavior that is impossible to perform at the same time as another specific behavior. For example, running and sitting are incompatible behaviors as one subject cannot perform both simultaneously. Interval reinforcement
The trainer reinforces according to a time schedule. In a fixed interval, the trainer reinforces the desired response after a specific period of time for example, every minute. In a variable interval, the trainer reinforces after varying periods of time within a certain timeframe.

Keep going signal (KGS)
A signal verbal or otherwise given in the middle of a behavior to tell the dog he is doing the behavior correctly and should keep doing what he's doing. Keep going signals add an unnecessary level of complexity in training

Jackpot (Bonus)
A positive reinforcer that is much larger than usual, and usually unexpected.

Latency
The interval of time between the stimulus and response.

Least Reinforcing Stimulus
All interaction or reinforcement, positive or negative, is withheld for a period of time (generally a few seconds) so as not to reinforce an undesirable behavior or lack of response. Also termed Least Reinforcing Scenario, serving as a stimulus for calm behavior following an incorrect response, which helps to reduce frustration that might result from a lack of reinforcement.

Luring
A handsoff method of guiding the dog through a behavior. For example, a food lure can be used to guide a dog from a sit into a down. This is a common method of getting more complex behaviors. Lures are usually food, but they may also be target sticks or anything else the dog will follow. Trainers must take care to fade the lure early.

Magnitude of Reinforcement
Refers to the size, strength, and duration of the reinforcement following a behavior. Modeling
A technique used in traditional training to get behavior. At the outset, the dog is physically guided or otherwise compelled into doing the behavior. Pushing a dog's rear into a sit is modeling. Clicker trainers don't use modeling because we want our dogs to be active participants in the training process, using their own brains to figure out what will earn them clicks.

Negative punishment (P)
Taking away something the animal will work for to suppress (lessen the frequency of ) a behavior. For example, a dog jumps on you to get attention. By turning your back or leaving the room you apply P
by removing the attention he wants.

Negative Reinforcement (R)
An act that increases the frequency of a behavior by providing an aversive stimulus that the subject will work to avoid or escape. The frequency of behavior increases to avoid the onset of or to terminate the aversive stimulus.

No Reward Marker
(NRM) Intended to be a signal to say, "No, that isn't what I want try again." From the OC perspective, it's intended to add a verbal cue to extinction. However, once something has been added to the situation, it's impossible to know whether a change occurred through extinction or punishment. No reward markers usually represent an unnecessary level of complexity in a training program.

Observational Learning
A type of learning in which the behavior of another organism is observed and imitated.

Operant Conditioning
The process of changing an animal's response to a certain stimulus by manipulating the consequences that immediately follow the response. The five principles of operant conditioning were developed by B.F. Skinner. Clicker training is a subset of operant conditioning, using only positive reinforcement, extinction, and, to a lesser extent, negative punishment.

Permanent criteria
Criteria that are found in the final behavior. Permanent criteria should be trained to a higher level of reliability than temporary criteria.

Positive punishment
(P+) Adding something the animal will work to avoid to suppress (lessen the frequency of ) a behavior. For example, jerking on the lead to stop a dog from jumping on someone is P+ used to suppress the behavior of jumping. Other common examples of P+ include yelling, nose taps, spanking, electric shock, and assorted "booby traps."

Positive Reinforcement (R+)
The addition of a desirable stimulus to the subject's environment following a behavior, thereby causing an increase in the frequency occurrence of that behavior.

Premack principle
A theory stating that a stronger response or a preferred response will reinforce a weaker response.

Primary Reinforcer (Unconditioned Reinforcer)
A reinforcing event that does not depend on learning or previous experience to achieve its reinforcing properties (e.g. biological need: air,food, water, sex).

Proofing
Teaching your dog to perform a behavior in the presence of distractions.

Punishment
An act that occurs immediately after an undesirable behavior it is meant to affect, and causes a decrease in the frequency of that behavior. This can be in the form of the administration of an aversive stimulus or event (positive punishment) or the removal of a desirable stimulus (negative punishment); Anything that decreases the frequency of the behavior it immediately follows.

Ratio
A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces desired behavior based on the number of responses. In a fixed ratio, the trainer reinforces the first "correct" response after a specific number of correct responses. "Two
fers" and "three
fers" are examples of fixed ratios. In a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, the trainer reinforces the first correct response after varying numbers of correct responses.

Rate of reinforcement
The number of reinforcers given for desired responses in a specific period of time. A high rate of reinforcement is critical to training success.

Regression
The state of a previously conditioned behavior reverting back to a lower stage of development.

Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a consequence to a behavior in which something is added to or removed from the situation to make the behavior more likely to occur in thefuture.

Reinforcer
An object, action or other stimulus that causes an increase in the frequency of a response. Anything dog will work to obtain.

Release word A word that signals th
e end of a behavior, such as "OK", or "FREE " or "that will do"

Schedule of Reinforcement
The conditions under which reinforcement is delivered.

Secondary Reinforcer (Conditioned Reinforcer)
An object or event that initially may mean nothing to the animal but becomes reinforcing through pairing with a primary reinforcer.

Shaping
An operant conditioning method of taking an action or tendency and shifting it, one approximation at a time (successive approximations), toward the final behavioral goal.

Stimulus Control
Once a behavior is shaped, it is said to be under stimulus control if it meets 3 conditions: 1) It is immediately offered following the SD; 2) It is offered only when preceded by the correct SD; and 3) It is not offered in the presence of another SD.

Superstitious Behavior
A behavior that is unrelated to the behavior being conditioned but has inadvertently been reinforced often enough that it becomes fixed in the subject's mind as necessary in order to receive reinforcement.

Target (noun)
A prop (or position) which pinpoints a specific lo for an animal to touch, approach, or follow, e.g. a trainer teaches a rhino to touch its lip to the end of a stick. Using this technique to shape a behavior is called "targeting."

Target (verb)
The act of an animal touching a predetermined target, (spot, point or prop) with a designated body part.

Time out
Type of mild punishment (negative punishment) in which the trainer ceases to provide stimuli or responses (i.e. removes him/herself and all other opportunity for reinforcement from the training situation) for a period of time with the intent of causing a decrease in the frequency or occurrence of an undesired response.

Traditional training
Compulsion training.Traditional training is characterized by modeling or luring to get the behavior and the use of negative reinforcement and positive punishment to "proof" it.

Training period
A pre
set period of time set aside for training. A training period may be composed of multiple training sessions.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
In Classical Conditioning, any stimulus that can elicit reactions from a subject without prior conditioning.

Variable Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which the timing and/or delivery of the reinforcer is unpredictable.

Variable Interval Schedule of Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcement follows the first correct response after a varying amount of time. For example, if an animal is reinforced on the average of every 4 seconds, we say that VI=4.

Variable Ratio Schedule of Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement follows the first correct response after a varying number of responses. This is usually based on an average number of responses to be reinforced. For example, if the average is to be every third response (VR=3), the number of behaviors requested would average 3 between each reinforcement.